Today Is June 6th. On This Day, In 1944, 156,000 Allied Troops Stormed The Beaches Of Normandy In Nazi

Centralia, Pennsylvania. For most of its history, the town of Centralia was a prosperous coal mining town. Centralia was officially founded in 1842 by Alexander Rae. The first mines opened in the area in 1856, and by 1890 the town had a population of 2,761 and hosted seven churches, five hotels, twenty-seven saloons, fourteen general stores, two theaters, a bank, and a post office. During World War I, production declined as many of the young men enlisted in the military. After the Wall Street Crash in 1929, several of the area mines were closed. However, many illegal mining operations continued in various places. By the 1960's, official coal mining in Centralia had completely ceased, but illegal mining continued until 1982.

In 1962, the Centralia Town Council was deciding what to do with the town landfill. The landfill was established the previous year to discourage illegal dumping and was located inside an abandoned strip-mine pit next to the Odd Fellowes Cemetery. On May 27, firefighters set the landfill on fire and let it burn before extinguishing it. However, the fire was not fully put out - it managed to enter the labyrinth of abandoned coal tunnels that snaked underneath the town.

Residents began to notice something was wrong around 1979. By this point there just over 1,000 residents living in Centralia. That year gas station owner John Coddington inserted a dipstick into one of his underground gasoline tanks to check the fuel level. When he withdrew it, it felt hot. So, he inserted a thermometer into the tank and was shocked to discover the temperature of the gas in the tank was 172° Fahrenheit. Beginning in 1980 several locals began to suffer from health effects due to the gases produced by the fire. Statewide attention began to focus on Centralia when sinkholes began opening at various places in the area. In 1981, 12-year-old Todd Domboski fell into a sinkhole in his grandmother's backyard that opened suddenly right beneath his feet. He saved himself be grabbing a tree root and was pulled to safety by his cousin Eric Wolfgang. The steam plume billowing from the hole was tested and found to contain lethal levels of carbon monoxide. At the same time, Governor Dick Thornburgh and State Rep. James Nelligen were visiting the area to assess the situation. In response to the worsening crisis, the U.S. Congress allocated $42 million for relocation effort. Most residents accepted the payments and moved out of town. Afterwards most of the town's structures were demolished. Some residents, however, refused to leave - with 63 residents remaining by 1990. In 1992, Governor Bob Casey invoked eminent domain on all properties within the town. The U.S. Postal Service discontinued Centralia's zip code in 2002.

There have been several legal attempts by the few remaining residents to stop the government from seizing their homes. The holdouts claim that the government wanted the mineral rights to all the coal deposits that remained untapped. In 2009, the state began formal eviction proceedings against the last few residents. These residents filed suit in 2010 claiming they were victims of fraud. By 2013, the residents settled, reaching an agreement that they could remain in their homes until their deaths, at which point the properties would be claimed under eminent domain. By 2020, only five residents still live in Centralia.

The fire underneath Centralia continues to burn. At its current burn rate, the fire could continue to burn for the next 250 years. Almost all the towns' structures have been demolished, and nature has mostly reclaimed the land. From above, the Centralia appears to be nothing more than a series of paved roads hidden within thick forest. There are numerous fissures all over the affected area spewing steam and toxic gas into the air. A section of Pennsylvania Route 61 passing through the Borough was closed after steam damaged and split the pavement repeatedly. There are many signs placed around warning of ground instability and toxic fumes.

The town has served as the model for numerous ghost towns in popular culture including Vampire Zero by David Wellington and Strange Highways by Dean Koontz. Most famously, the story of Centralia was used as research for the basis of the namesake town in the 2006 film 'Silent Hill' - a movie based the popular video game franchise of the same name.

The Dyatlov Pass incident, Soviet Union, 1959. In January of 1959, a skiing expedition was organized by a group of 10 people from the Ural Ploytechnic Institute led by student Igor Dyatlov. All group members were experienced hikers and skiiers and all except one were students at the institute. The expedition was planned to last three weeks and take the group to the top of Gora Oterton, a mountain in Russia. The group traveled by train to the town of Ivdel and then by truck to the village of Vizhai, the last inhabited settlement before the mountains. The group stayed the night in Vizhai before starting the trek the next day. On January 27th, the group began their expedition. On the 28th, group member Yuri Yudin turned back because of joint pain. That was the last time anyone saw the 9 other group members alive. Cameras and diaries found at the camp detailed the events leading up to the incident. On January 31st, the group stored surplus food and supplies in a wooded valley for their return trip. The next day the group began through the pass. However, due to bad weather conditions, the group got lost and strayed from their route, and instead of turning around they set up camp at the base of Kholat Syakhl (literally ‘Dead Mountain’ in the Mansi language). The group planned to send a telegram to their sports club when they had returned to Vizhai on February 12th. However, Dyatlov expected the trek to take longer, so the 12th came and went with no contact from the group with little alarm. By February 20th, relatives of the hikers demanded a search and rescue operation. The institute sent out volunteer groups consisting of students and teachers which were eventually joined by members of the military. On February 26th, searchers found the groups campsite. The tent had been torn open from the inside and all the groups shoes and personal belongings were still in the tent. Nine sets of footprints showed that the hikers fled the tent wearing only socks, a single shoe, or simply barefoot. Two bodies were discovered along the edge of some woods under a Siberian pine along with the remains of a small fire. The bodies were dressed only in underwear and evidence shows that one of them attempted to climb the tree. Three more bodies were discovered between the woods and camp apparently attempting to return to the tent. Two months later, on May 4th, the remaining bodies were found under 13 feet of snow at the bottom of a 247 foot ravine. Signs show that clothing belonging to the deceased were removed for use by the others. Examination of the bodies posed even more mysteries. While six died of hypothermia, one had a major skull fracture and two had fatal chest fractures. The force needed for these injuries would need be the equivalent of a car wreck. One hiker was missing her eyes, tongue, and part of her lips, one was missing his eyes, and a third was missing his eyebrows. Clothing on some of the bodies tested positive for trace amounts of radiation. Soviet authorities declared that a “compelling natural force” was responsible for the deaths. Numerous theories have been put out including aliens, avalanche, wild animal attacks, attacks by Mansi natives, infrasound panic, and military involvement. In 2019 the case was reopened by Russian authorities who claimed that an avalanche had caused the deaths. These claims have been disputed.

Death of Elisa Lam, 2013. In 2013, 21-year-old Canadian university student Elisa Lam was staying at the Cecil Hotel in Los Angeles, California. On January 31, she was reported missing by her family after they received no word from her on the day she was meant to check out. Hotel staff who had seen her that day reported that she was alone. The LAPD and her family searched the hotel and put up flyers around the neighborhood. On February 15, police released surveillance footage from one the hotels elevators. The two and a half minute video is the last known sighting of Lam. The footage shows her behaving strangely, making erratic hand gestures, talking to someone who isn’t there, pressing all the buttons on the elevator, and leaving the elevator while doors are open before coming back and seemingly hiding in the corner. She leaves for a second time and doesn’t return. The doors close soon after. Many who viewed the video found it unsettling. Theories explaining her behavior include being under the influence of ecstasy, attempting to evade someone pursuing her, or psychotic episode after it was made known she suffered from Bipolar Disorder. Some claimed the video was tampered with. During the search, hotel guests began complaining about low water pressure, and some complained about the taste and color of the water, saying it was black and tasted strange. On February 19, hotel maintenance worker Santiago Lopez discovered the body of Elisa Lam floating in one of the four of the buildings 1,000 gallon water tanks. She was found naked with her clothes and personal belongings floating near her. The tank was drained and taken apart to get her body out. The Coroners report found no evidence of physical trauma, sexual assault, or suicide. Toxicology tests found traces of the prescription medication she had among her personal effects, though there was evidence she was either under medicating or had stopped medicating all together recently. There was also a very small quantity of alcohol in her system. The authorities ruled the death an accidental drowning with Bipolar Disorder as a major factor. Many questioned how she got onto the roof and into the tank in the first place. All roof access doors were locked and only staff members had the keys. Any attempts to force the doors open would trigger an alarm. Though the fire escape would allow someone to bypass these security measures, her scent trail was lost near a window connected to the fire escape. How she got into the tank was another mystery. The tank was a 4 by 8 feet cylinder and supported by cinder blocks with no fixed access. Staff use ladders to get inside. The lids are heavy and difficult to move, although Lopez said the lid was open. Police dogs who searched the roof found no trace of her. Some argue that the autopsy information is incomplete. For example, the report does not state if the rape kit was processed. It also records blood pooling in the anal area, which some claim is a sign of sexual abuse. Since her death, Lams tumblr blog has been updated, presumably through the sites queue option. Her phone was never found so it is unknown if it’s the option, hacking, or facilitating by the stolen phone causing these updates. Numerous theories have been put out, including paranormal involvement as the Cecil Hotel is famous for its history of murders and deaths that have taken place in the building.

Island of the Dolls, Mexico. Located is a canal in Mexico City, the island is filled with hundreds of creepy and decaying dolls. The original inhabitant of the island, Don Julian, began to display the dolls to appease the spirit of a young girl, who’s body was found drowned in the river near the island. Julian drowned in 2001, in the same exact spot where the girls body was found. There are rumors of paranormal activity, including whispers, footsteps, voices, and movements made by the dolls. Many locals claim that the dolls “come to life at night”. Do you think you could visit for the night?

Russia as a State Sponsor of Terrorism: What does it mean?

As the Russian invasion of Ukraine drags on, many have called on the United States government to label the Russian Federation as a State Sponsor of Terrorism. The impacts of this action would be catastrophic for Russia.

What is Terrorism?

Let’s begin by defining what Terrorism is. The United Nations has defined terrorism as Criminal acts intended to provoke a state of terror in the general public, which under no circumstances can be justified. Is Russia guilty of this?

Absolutely. Ever sense the unprovoked invasion began, Russia has repeatedly targeted Ukrainian civilians, destroying apartments buildings, hospitals, and shopping centers. Missile attacks in Mariupol, Chernihiv, Kramatorsk, Odessa, Kharkiv, Kremenchuk, Chasiv Yar, and Vinnytsia have resulted in large numbers of civilian casualties. The Russian government also has a long history of aggression both inside and outside of the country. This includes the support of the brutal regime of Syrian dictator Bashir Al-Assad, allegedly organizing the murders of various dissidents such as Boris Nemtsov and Anna Politkovskaya, conducting war crimes during the Second Chechen War between 2000 and 2009, and involvement in the downing of Malaysian Airlines Flight 17 over Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine in 2014.

State Sponsors of Terrorism

Beginning in the 1970’s, the United States Department of State has maintained the list of “State Sponsors of Terrorism”. Countries included on this list have been alleged to have “repeatedly provided support for acts of international Terrorism”. Inclusion on the list imposes strict unilateral sanctions that the US government can also make allied nations and trade partners follow. The countries that are currently on the list are North Korea, Syria, Iran, and Cuba. Countries that have been on the list in the past include Iraq, Libya, South Yemen, and Sudan.

Results of being Designated a Terrorist State

Being included on this list is followed by unilateral sanctions. Bear in mind, some of these are already in place due to the annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the ongoing war:

A ban on arms-related exports

Controls over dual-use items, requiring a 30 day Congressional notice for good or services that could significantly enhance the country’s military capabilities. Dual use items are products that have both civilian or military applications. This includes vehicle parts, chemicals, mechanical equipment, and electronic components.

Prohibition on economic assistance of any kind

Requiring the United States to oppose loans by the World Bank and other international financial institutions

Lifting diplomatic immunity to allow families of terrorist victims to file civil lawsuits against the country in American courts

Denying companies and individuals tax credits for income earned in terrorist listed countries

Denial of duty free treatment of goods exported to the United States

Authority to prohibit any US citizen from engaging in a financial transaction with a terrorist listed government without a Treasury Department license

Prohibition of Defense Department contracts above $100,000 with companies controlled by Terrorist list states

The main sanction that would happen if Russia were included would be to its reputation. Jason Blazakis, former Director of the U.S. State Department Counterterrorism Finance and Designations Office in the Bureau of Counterterrorism and Professor at the Middlebury Institute of International Studies, stated in an Op-Ed for the Los Angeles Times, that Russia being designated a terrorist state would be the “ultimate sanction”. Think about it. What country would want to be doing business with a terrorist state? Many nations would cease trade or any other operations in Russia very quickly. Any governments that continue to do business with Moscow would be subject to secondary sanctions. “It would also have the added benefit of getting more companies to de-risk from Russia. That would likely include US and non-US companies. Businesses don’t like operating in countries that are state sponsors of terrorism” Blazakis stated. Although many companies have ceased operations in Russia already, those that haven’t would flee in droves.

As you can see designating Russia as a terrorist state would have catastrophic impact on the Russian economy. The “nuclear economic option” so to speak. Maybe this would finally get the point across to Russia that their invasion is unjustified and immoral. I will also list charities you can donate to to help Ukraine. Slava Ukraini 🇺🇦

World Vision

International Medical Corps

Save the Children

Action Against Borders

Project HOPE

International Rescue Committee

Heart to Heart International

CARE International

Razom for Ukraine

Voices of Children

Come Back Alive

Serhiy Prytula Foundation

United24

Hospitallers

Army SOS

As we near the end of pride month, I would like to celebrate a number of LGBTQ+ figures that may be unknown to some.

Alan Turing (1912 - 1954)

Alan Turing was British mathematician, cryptologist, and computer scientist who is credited as the founder of modern computer science and artificial intelligence. During World War II, he worked for Britain’s Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park, leading the effort to decrypt German naval intelligence. Turing created a number of methods and devices that helped crack the German Enigma Code and allowed the allies to read German intelligence and allow allied ships to avoid U-Boat ‘Wolf-packs’. Turing’s work was pivotal in helping the allied victory in the war. Sadly, Turing was arrested in 1952 for homosexual acts and convicted of ‘gross indecency’. He accepted chemical castration as an alternative to prison. In 1954, was found dead from suicide by cyanide poisoning. It’s believed that Turing’s work helped shortened the war by several years.

Harvey Milk (1930 - 1978)

Harvey Milk was a politician and the first openly gay man to serve in public office in the United States. Milk moved to San Francisco in 1972 and took up residence in the Castro District, a neighborhood that was heavily populated by lesbians and gay men, and opened a camera store called Castro Camera. Milk became involved in politics because of civic issues and policies that drew his ire. Homosexuality was still heavily persecuted in the city at the time. In 1973, he announced his declared his candidacy for city supervisor. However, he faced a negative reception from the established gay political scene and lost the election. He lost his second election two years later. By this point, Milk had become a leading figure in the gay community, known as the “Mayor of Castro Street”, and had allies that included Mayor George Moscone, Assembly Speaker Willie Brown, and future Senator Diane Feinstein. Finally, in 1978, Milk was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors, inaugurated January 8. During his tenure he was involved in a number of issues including childcare, housing, and police reform. Sadly, he only served eleven months in office before he, along with George Moscone, was assassinated by former supervisor Dan White, who was against many of Milks policies. Today, Harvey Milk is considered an icon of San Francisco and a martyr of the LGBTQ movement.

Rose Cleveland (1846 - 1918)

Rose Cleveland was the sister of U.S. President Grover Cleveland and, as such, acted as First Lady of the United States from his inauguration until he married Frances Folsom in 1886. After leaving the White House she became a teacher, writer, and lecturer in Indiana. At age 44 she started a romantic relationship with wealthy widow Evangeline Marrs Simpson. They exchanged numerous letters, some with explicitly erotic imagery. The relationship cooled after six years after Simpson married Episcopal preacher Bishop Henry Whipple, despite Cleveland’s protests. After Whipple died in 1901, their relationship resumed. Cleveland and Evangeline moved to Bagni di Lucca, Italy in 1910, where they cared for Evangeline’s ill brother and settled there after his death. They lived there together until Cleveland died during the 1918 Influenza Pandemic. After her death, Evangeline wrote “the light has gone out for me…the loss of this noble and great soul is a blow that I shall not recover from”. Evangeline died in 1930 and is buried in the cemetery in Italy next to Rose. Many of their letters remain an important part of LGBTQ history.

Andy Warhol (1928 - 1987)

Andy Warhol was an American artist, director, and producer who was a leading figure in the pop art movement of the 1950’s to 1970’s. This movement focused on combining fine art with elements of popular culture, hence the name pop art. Warhol’s paintings focused on mass produced consumer goods and celebrity portraits. Warhol’s most famous pieces include Campbell’s Soup Cans (1962), Green Coca-Cola Bottles (1962), Marilyn Diptych (1962), and Mao Tse-Tung (1972). He also directed and produced experimental films including Empire (1964) and Chelsea Girls (1966). His New York City gallery, The Factory, was a popular gathering place for artists, musicians, actors, socialites, and celebrities. In 1966, he became the manager of rock band The Velvet Underground, which became the house band of The Factory. In 1969, he created Interview magazine, which features interviews with celebrities, artists, musicians, and other creatives. Warhol lived openly as a gay man before the gay liberation movement and had a series of male partners. He said his sexuality was a major influence of his work. Warhol died on February 22, 1987 due to complications from a gallbladder surgery. Andy Warhol is regarded as one of America’s most famous visual artists.

Gladys Bentley (1907 - 1960)

Gladys Bentley was an American blues singer, pianist, and entertainer during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920’s and 1930’s. Her career took off after performing at Harry Hansberry’s Clam House, a well known gay speakeasy in New York City. She gained popularity as a black, lesbian, cross dressing performer. She performed in men’s clothes and was backed up by a chorus of drag queens. She sang with a deep, growling voice, and took popular songs and added her own raunchy lyrics while flirting with women in the audience. Despite being openly lesbian in the beginning of her career, she later started wearing dresses and married during the more conservative 1950’s in order to adapt to the mindset of the time period. Bentley died of pneumonia in 1960 and is remembered as an icon of both the LGBTQ and Black communities.

Willem Arondeus (1894 - 1943)

Willem Arondeus was an openly gay Dutch artist and writer who fought for the Dutch resistance against Nazi occupation during World War II. Prior to the war, he wished to work as an artist, but he found very little popularity, so he turned to writing instead. After Germany occupied The Netherlands, Arondeus joined the Resistance Movement, publishing underground periodicals and forging documents. His most famous endeavor, was his involvement in the bombing of the Amsterdam Civil Registry in 1943. The Civil Registry was established following the German invasion and occupation of the Netherlands in 1940 and was used to keep records of all residents of the country and identified those who were Jewish, resistance members, and those who could be called up for forced labor. On March 27, resistance members, including Arondeus, entered the building by disguising themselves as police officers and sedating the guards. They then piled all the documents on the floor and set of explosives. They fire department delayed putting out the fire and then doused the whole building with water. 800,000 ID cards were destroyed in total. Unfortunately, someone betrayed Arondeus and he was subsequently arrested, tried, and sentenced to death. Before his execution, his last words were “tell people that homosexuals are not cowards”.

Gilbert Baker (1951 - 2017)

Gilbert Baker was an American artist and designer who is the original creator of the LGBTQ Rainbow Pride flag. He joined the anti-war movement in the 1970’s where he met, and became friends with, Harvey Milk. Milk commissioned Baker to create a flag that could represent gay pride. Using the American flag as inspiration, Baker hand sew the original flag, which had eight colored stripes (two more than the modern version). Each color represents a different aspect important to the gay community: (from hot pink to violet) sex, life, healing, sunlight, nature, magic, serenity, and spirit. The flag was first flown in San Francisco on June 25, 1978, for gay pride day. Baker died in 2017, and is regarded as a major figure in the pride movement. Today there are many different variations of the Pride flag, with each one representing a different group from the gay community

Larry Kramer (1935 - 2020)

Larry Kramer was an American playwright, author, film producer, and gay rights activist, who worked to bring awareness to the AIDS crisis in the 1980’s. He began his career writing scripts for Columbia pictures, winning an Academy Award for the 1969 film Women in Love. After witnessing the disease later known as AIDS spread among his friends, Kramer became involved in gay activism. In 1982, Kramer co-founded Gay Men’s Health Crisis, now known as GMHC, which provides social services for those infected with AIDS, along with testing, legal assistance, and mental health support. It’s currently the largest AIDS assistance organization in the world After, growing frustrated with the government paralysis and apathy towards gay men, he wanted to engage in further action, so in 1987, he helped found the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP). ACT UP is a direct action protest organization that works to change legislation and public policy to end the AIDS crisis. ACT UP soon had chapters in cities all over the United States. The movement then spread internationally, with separate movements being established in other countries including the United Kingdom, Canada, France, India, and Germany. In 1992, Kramer wrote the play ‘The Destiny of Me’, which follows a character from his 1985 play ‘The Normal Heart’ seeking experimental treatment for AIDS. The play was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize. The Normal Heart debuted on Broadway in 2011, and was adapted into an HBO movie in 2014. Kramer died of pneumonia on May 27, 2020.

Bessie Smith (1894 - 1937)

Bessie Smith was an American blues singer, nicknamed the ‘Empress of Blues’. She was the most popular female blues singer of the 1930’s. Smith stated her career busking in the streets to help her family financially. In 1912, she auditioned for a music troupe that included blues legend Ma Rainey. She was originally hired as a dancer. Smith began her solo career at the 81 Theater in Atlanta, Georgia. She signed with Columbia Records in 1923. She made 160 recordings for Columbia, accompanied by some of the most famous musicians of the day including Louis Armstrong, Coleman Hawkins, Fletcher Henderson, and Sidney Bechet. She became the highest paid black entertainer of the day. Throughout her career, smith was apologetically herself, having affairs with both men and women. Some speculate her bisexuality was hinted at in the lyrics of her songs, including ‘boy in the boat’: “when you see two women walking hand in hand/Just look ‘em over and try to understand/They’ll go to those parties/Having the lights down low/Only those parties where women can go”. Sadly, her career was cut short in 1937, when she died at the age of 43 due to injuries sustained in a car accident enroute to Chattanooga, Tennessee. Her funeral was attended by more then 5,000 people. In 1989, she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, with an entry saying her reign was “definitive, unprecedented, and glorious”.

James Baldwin (1924 - 1987)

James Baldwin was an American writer who gained critical acclaim across multiple forms, including essays, novels, plays, and poems. In 1953, he published his first book ‘Go Tell it on the Mountain’, a semi-autobiographical novel which tells the story of a young African American man who grew up in Harlem, New York City, and his relationship with his family and the Pentecostal Church. In 1998, Modern Library ranked the book 39th on its list of 100 best English language novels of the 20th century. In 2005, Time Magazine included the book in its list of the 100 Best Novels from 1923 (when Time was first published) to 2005. In 1956, Baldwin wrote ‘Giovanni’s Room’ whose main character was a gay American man living in Paris, France, who began an affair with an Italian bartender named Giovanni, whom he met at a Gay bar. Gay and Bisexual men are also frequently featured in his other works. His unfinished manuscript Remember This House was expanded and adapted in the 2016 Oscar nominated documentary I Am Not Your Negro, which won the BAFTA Award for Best Documentary. His 1974 novel ‘If Beale Street Could Talk’ was adapted into a movie in 2018, which won Best Supporting Actress for Regina King at the 91st Academy Awards, where the film was also nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Original Score. King also received Best Supporting Actress at the 76th Golden Globe Awards and 24th Critics Choice Awards. Both the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute included it in their top 10 films of 2018. Today, James Baldwin is considered one of the most famous LGBTQ writers in American history.

The Hook Island Sea Monster. This photo supposedly captured a large, Unidentified creature in the water off the coast of Hook Island, Australia.

Halloween: A Holiday Rooted in Tradition

Halloween is by far one of the most popular holidays celebrated in the United States. It's marked by dressing in costumes, trick-or-treating, haunted attractions, pumpkin carving, many other fun activities that range from scary to whimsical. But what is Halloween? Where did it originate? Why do we celebrate it the way we do? The origins of Halloween date back many thousands of years.

The celebration of Halloween, or All Hallow's Eve, dates back thousands of years to the ancient Gaelic festival of Samhain (pronounced Sow-in). The Celtic people, who inhabited the Isle of Ireland, Great Britain, and Northern France, celebrated the new year on November 1, which marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter. The Celts believed that on this day, the boundary between the worlds of the living and the dead was thinnest, which allowed spirits to cross over into our world and allowed divination to become easier. To commemorate the event, the Celtic people would build large bonfires, and the bones of animals kept for slaughter were thrown into the flames as a sacrifice. People would wear costumes or carve masks out of gourds, such as turnips, in order to trick the spirits into believing that they were ghosts as well.

The practice of carving vegetables also originated in Ireland. According to Gaelic mythology, there was a man named Stingy Jack, who had a reputation for being a drunkard and a cheat. One night while drinking at a pub, he encountered the devil himself and Jack offered to share a drink with him. Afterwards, Jack admitted he had no money and convinced the Devil to turn himself into a coin in order to pay. The devil did so, and Jack placed the coin into his pocket along with a silver crucifix, which prevented the devil from changing forms. Jack promised to let him go so long as the Devil left Jack alone for one year. Once one year was up, Jack tricked the Devil again by asking him to climb a tree from a piece of fruit and carved a cross into the bark, so the Devil couldn't climb down. Jack let him go on the condition that he wouldn't claim Jacks soul once he died. Jack eventually died and he wasn't allowed into Heaven and, keeping to his word, the Devil wouldn't let him enter Hell. So, Jack was cursed to wonder the Earth for eternity, with nothing but a lit coal inside a hollowed-out Turnip to light his way. He was called 'Jack of the Lantern' or Jack O'Lantern. The Ancient Irish would carve out turnips and other vegetables with scary faces to frighten away wandering, evil spirits. Irish immigrants arriving in North America began to use pumpkins because they were easier to carve.

By 43 A.D., the Roman Empire conquered the vast majority of Celtic territory, where they would rule for over 400 years. The Romans introduced two holidays of Roman origin and combined them with Celtic celebrations. The first was Feralia, which was a day in late October meant to celebrate the dead. The second was a festival that honored Pomona, the Goddess of trees and fruit, which occurred in November. The symbol of Pomona is the apple. Some believe that this is where the tradition of apple bobbing came from.

On May 13, 609 A.D., Pope Boniface IV dedicated the Pantheon of Rome in honor of all Christian Martyrs, establishing the feast of All Martyrs Day. It's believed the church sought to supplant the Roman festival of Lemuria, a festival in which malevolent spirits were exercise from homes, with a Christian holiday. Pope Gregory III expanded this festival to include all Saints as well and moved the celebration to November 1, as the Church sought to replace the Celtic traditions of Samhain with a church sanctioned holiday. The day was called All-hollowmas (from Middle English 'Alholowmesse' meaning 'All Saints' Day') and thus the day before began to be called All Hollow's Eve. In 1000 A.D., the Church established November 2 as All Soul's Day, a day to remember the dead. All three became the festival of AllHollowtide.

During the celebration of All Saints Day and All Souls Day, poor people in England and Ireland would go from door to door of the wealthy and ask for small cakes called Soul Cakes in exchange for a prayer for the givers deceased family members. Children soon took up this practice. They would sing songs or perform small acts in exchange for small gifts of food, ale, or money.

In the 19th century, millions of Irish immigrated to the United States. They brought with them, the Catholic faith and the celebrations of Halloween. These celebrations were limited, as the United States was a majority Protestant country. However, the immigrants celebrated however they could, and a popular way was pulling pranks or 'tricks'. This usually amounted to nothing more than pulling the wheels off wagons, placing livestock on barn roofs, uprooting vegetables from gardens, and tipping over outhouses. However, these 'pranks' got more violent round the 1930's, with acts of violence becoming commonplace. In theory, tricks could be prevented by giving small treats to the neighborhood children.

By the mid-20th century, Halloween became a community centered holiday with haunted attractions, ghost stories, parties, and trick-or-treating becoming immensely popular. This leads us to the classic Halloween celebrations we know today. Today, Halloween is one of the most celebrated holidays in United States.

Sedlec Ossuary, Czech Republic. This chapel in the Sedlec suburb of the city of Kutna Hora, Central Bohemia, Czech Republic is one of the most unique in the world: the interior is decorated entirely with human bones.

In the mid-12th century, a Catholic monastery was established in Kunta Hora by the Order of Cistercian Monks. It was the first Cistercian abbey in Bohemia and remained in operation until it was dissolved in 1783. In 1278, Henry - the Abbott of the Monastery - was sent to the Holy Land by King Ottokar II of Bohemia. There he collected soil from the area outside Jerusalem where Jesus was supposedly crucified. When he returned home, he scattered this holy soil in the Abby cemetery. Word of this pious act soon spread, making the cemetery a desirable place to be buried for people throughout Central Europe. This, in addition to the Black Death in the 14th century and the Hussite Wars in the 15th century, led to many thousands being buried in the cemetery, leading it to be vastly expanded. Around 1400, a new gothic cathedral was built on the cemetery grounds. The basement of this chapel was used as an ossuary - a vessel or site used for the storing of human remains. Over 40,000 bodies were exhumed to make room in the cemetery and their bones were placed in unorganized heaps within the ossuary.

In 1870, the Schwarzenberg family - a noble family that were patrons of the church - hired local woodcarver Frantisek Rint to organize the bones into a much more aesthetically pleasing arrangement. The results of his work are absolutely astounding. The decorations and furnishings of the chapel are made completely out of human bones. These decorations include four massive bell-shaped mounds, chandelier, an altar, a coat of arms of the House of Schwarzenberg, and a signature of Rint by the front entrance. The chapel has a earned the name "The Chruch of Bones" and receives as many as 200,000 visitors annually.

To mark the end of Women’s History Month, here are 10 women who changed the world and inspired thousands.

Florence Nightingale, 1820 - 1910

Florence Nightingale trained nurses and organized medical care for soldiers during the Crimean War (1853 to 1856) between the Ottoman and Russian Empires. Considered to be the founder of modern nursing.

Clara Barton, 1821 - 1912

Clara Barton served as a nurse during the American Civil War, providing self taught nursing care, as she did not possess any formal medical training. Went on to found the American Red Cross in 1881.

Marie Curie, 1867 - 1934

Marie Curie was a French-Polish physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research in the field of radioactivity, along with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel. First woman to win a Nobel prize, and only person to win a Nobel prize to two scientific fields (physics and chemistry). Also first woman to serve as a professor at the University of Paris in France.

Rosa Parks, 1913 - 2005

Rosa Parks was an activist during the American Civil Rights Movement. In 1955, she was arrested for refusing to vacate her bus seat for a white man in Montgomery, Alabama. This incident helped inspire the Montgomery Bus Boycott that led to the desegregation of public buses in the State of Alabama in 1956.

Amelia Earhart, 1897 - disappeared 1937, declared dead 1939

Amelia Earhart was a pilot who was the first female aviator to fly solo over the Atlantic Ocean. Instrumental in the formation of the Ninety-Nines, a female pilots organization. Disappeared while flying over the Pacific Ocean near Howland Island in 1937, along with her navigator Fred Noonan.

Eleanor Roosevelt, 1884 - 1962

Eleanor Roosevelt was the First Lady of the United States as wife of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt from 1933 to 1945. Advocated for expanded roles of women in the work place and supported the civil rights of Black and Asian Americans. Served as the first chair of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights and oversaw the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

Aretha Franklin, 1942 - 2018

Aretha Franklin was a singer and songwriter best known for being the “Queen of Soul”. She started out singing in her church choir as a child, and signed with Columbia Records in 1960 and Atlantic Records in 1966. Sang hit songs that include “Respect”, “Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)”, “Think”, and “I Say a Little Prayer”.

Harriet Tubman, 1822 - 1913

Harriet Tubman was an abolitionist and escaped slave who led approximately 70 slaves to freedom along the Underground Railroad. Served as a Union spy during the civil war and supported women’s suffrage after the war. Serves as a symbol for freedom and courage.

Katherine Johnson, 1918 - 2020

Katherine Johnson was a mathematician whose calculations in orbital mechanics working at NASA were critical in the success in the first American crewed spaceflights. Pioneered the use of computers to perform the tasks. One of the first few black women to work as a NASA scientist. Awarded the Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama in 2015.

Susan B. Anthony, 1820 - 1906

Susan B. Anthony was a social reformer and women’s rights activist who was pivotal in the Women’s Suffrage Movement. Co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association with Elizabeth Cady Staton in 1869, which merged with the American Woman Suffrage Association in 1890 to form the National American Women Suffrage Association, in which Anthony served as a dominant figure. Presented to Congress an amendment that allowed women to vote. The 19th amendment, nicknamed the “Susan B. Anthony Amendment” was passed in 1920, allowing women the right to vote.